With 22.8 million people living in an area of about 36,000 sq. km, Taiwan has a population density of 631 persons per sq. km, making it one of the most densely populated countries in the world. The population is concentrated on the western coast around the metropolitan areas of Taipei 臺北 in the north, Taichung 臺中 in the center, and Kaohsiung 高雄 in the south.

Ethnically, the people of Taiwan consist of two groups: an indigenous minority of Austronesian origin, and a Han 漢 majority composed of people whose ancestors came in two large waves from China, one beginning in the 17th century and the other after 1949. In recent years, an increase in marriages between people of Taiwan and citizens from other nations, as well as an influx of guest workers from Southeast Asia, has made Taiwan an even more pluralistic society.

The Council of Indigenous Peoples 行政院原住民族委員會, the Council for Hakka Affairs 行政院客家委員會, and the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission 蒙藏委員會 have been established under the Executive Yuan to aid various minority groups in Taiwan. In addition, central and local governments have established programs to help foreign spouses adjust to living in Taiwan.

In Taiwan, Mandarin (guoyu 國語) is the official language, while Holo Taiwanese 臺語 (also known as Taiwanese or Minnanese 閩南語) is spoken mainly by those whose ancestors immigrated from China's Fujian Province prior to 1949. The Hakka 客家 language is used within the Hakka community. Additionally, each indigenous group has its own language. Promoting the teaching and use of Holo Taiwanese, Hakka, and indigenous tongues is an important aspect of Taiwan's educational reform. Foreign language education is also being promoted so that Taiwan's people may better compete in a globalized world. For foreign students, universities and language institutes offer excellent Mandarin programs.

This chapter examines the composition and distribution of Taiwan's population, discusses the languages spoken by its people, and introduces related government policies.

Ethnic Composition

Indigenous Peoples

Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human habitation in Taiwan dating back 12,000 to 15,000 years that suggests that the earliest inhabitants of Taiwan came from at least two places: southern China and Austronesia. Linguistic analysis has shown that the languages Taiwan's indigenous peoples use belong to the Austronesian group, speakers of which inhabit an area extending from Easter Island in the east to Madagascar in the west, and from New Zealand in the south to Taiwan in the north. Anthropological research has shown that customs of Taiwan's indigenous groups, such as building houses on stilts to protect against damp, insects, and snakes; practicing slash-and-burn farming; weaving with bamboo and rattan; making clothing out of animal hides; wearing tattoos; chewing betel nut; and participating in circle dances, are all part of traditional Austronesian culture. Before the arrival of Han people from China, these several dozen Austronesian ethnic groups, possessing diverse cultures and languages, were the only inhabitants of Taiwan; they now make up roughly two percent of the population.

There are 12 major indigenous peoples in Taiwan: the Amis 阿美族, Atayal 泰雅族, Bunun 布農族, Kavalan 噶瑪蘭族, Paiwan 排灣族, Pinuyumayan (also known as Puyuma or Punuyumayan) 卑南族, Rukai 魯凱族, Saisiyat 賽夏族, Thao 邵族, Truku 太魯閣族, Tsou 鄒族, and Yami 雅美族 (also known as the Tao 達悟族). In 2005, the total indigenous population was about 465,000. About 50,000 indigenous persons did not provide details of their ethnic origins. Many indigenous people live on mountainous reservations, the land of which cannot be sold to non-aborigines.

Despite exposure to Han and Western culture, Taiwan's indigenous groups have maintained much of their unique way of life. Below are some of the distinctive cultural traits of the 12 main indigenous peoples in Taiwan.

Amis

Numbering 157,000 and residing mainly in eastern valleys and coastal areas, the Amis is Taiwan's largest indigenous ethnic group. Members of this group employ a matrilineal system of inheritance, pass on their culture in tribal classrooms, and have a hierarchy based on age, in which tribal chieftains have significant authority and responsibility. Traditional pursuits include farming, hunting, and coastal fishing. The singing and dancing of the Ilisin harvest festival held in July and August are well known. The Amis are subdivided geographically into the Nanshih 南勢, Siouguluan 秀姑巒, Coastal 海岸, Taitung 臺東, and Hengchun 恆春 groups, each of which has a different language, set of customs, and style of dress.

Atayal

There are about 76,000 Atayal scattered throughout the northern part of central Taiwan's mountainous region. Special cultural features include the gaga ancestral instruction system (a set of shared taboos and beliefs unique to the Atayal), facial tattooing, inheritance of a father's first name as a son's last name, ancestor worship, cloth weaving, and a united community typically occupying a single valley or flood plain.

Bunun

Numbering around 46,000, the Bunun live in the mountainous region of central Taiwan. The Bunun practice shifting cultivation and hunting, practices which have led to a complex system of beliefs, rituals, and taboos. Many cultural attributes are similar to those of the Tsou. Major Bunun ceremonies include the millet ceremony and the "ear-shooting ceremony" (a hunting ritual in which arrows are shot at animals' ears in the hope that this will bring a plentiful harvest). The Bunun are also particularly noted for their pasibutbut polyharmonic choral singing of prayers for a bumper crop. Because they live among Taiwan's highest mountains, the Bunun have been called the "real mountain people." Population increases and demand for land and resources have led to large-scale migration, however. Characteristic cultural features include the Bunun's patriarchal system, skill at making clothing from animal hides, and ancestor worship.

Kavalan

Numbering around 900, the Kavalan live in Taiwan's eastern counties. Originally living on the Yilan 宜蘭 Plain, they moved south to the Hualien 花蓮 and Taitung areas after Han Chinese immigration. For a long time, they have been considered as one of the pingpu 平埔 (plains) groups and not one of the gaoshan 高山 (mountain) groups. The pingpu groups were largely assimilated by the Han people at an early date. Nevertheless, traditional features can still be found in their language, myths, rituals, art, and crafts. Close proximity to the Amis has influenced many of the Kavalan's traditional customs.

Pinuyumayan

The 9,200 Pinuyumayan living in Taitung County may be subdivided into the Jhihben 知本 and Nanwang 南王 groups on the basis of linguistic and cultural differences. Combat ability acquired by strict training in traditional schools and skill in handling relationships with rulers meant that for a long time the Pinuyumayan controlled relations with the neighboring Amis and Paiwan.

Important Pinuyumayan rituals include the men's monkey ceremony (to develop courage), the sea ceremony, as well as the women's hoeing ceremony. Despite considerable exposure to Western and Han religions, traditional religious practices survive, and the high priestess is still responsible for identifying good or inauspicious omens, and draws on spiritual powers while performing a ceremony at the end of a period of mourning.

Rukai and Paiwan

The Rukai and Paiwan groups number around 11,000 and 78,000, respectively. They share many common cultural features, including belief in sun and hundred-pace snake totems, a social hierarchy consisting of nobility and commoners, a bilineal descent system (combining patrilineal and matrilineal features), manufacture of earthenware pots and glass beads, woodcarving, and swing (an important wedding ceremony participated in by women only). Under the aristocratic system followed by the two peoples, the nobility leased land to commoners for farming, while some members of the community concentrated on the arts. Therefore, the artistic achievements of these two groups are particularly distinguished.

The Paiwan also believe that their ancestral spirits, dwelling on Dawu Mountain 大武山, descend every five years to pay a visit to their descendants throughout southern Taiwan. The Five-Year Ceremony celebrates the reunion of the Paiwan and their ancestors.

Saisiyat

With a population of about 5,200, the Saisiyat culture has special characteristics that include a patriarchal organization and the Pasta'ai ceremony honoring dwarf spirits. Because of their small population and location between the Atayal and Hakka groups, however, traditional customs have unavoidably been deeply influenced. The Saisiyat have shifted from traditional farming to the cultivation of crops of high economic value, such as mushrooms, bamboo, and flowers.

Thao

The Thao have a population approaching 580. Originally inhabiting an island in the middle of Sun Moon Lake 日月潭, they later moved to the lake's edge from where they practice "floating island" farming in which soil and grass are placed on bamboo rafts in the lake, and upon which crops are planted. Members of this group have traditionally engaged in fishing, agriculture, and hunting as their main economic pursuits. Thao language and culture have been influenced by those of the neighboring Atayal and Bunun.

Truku

Faces painted and costumes donned, these smiling Truku children are all ready to celebrate a traditional festival. (Chen Ci-di)

The Truku have a population of over 21,000 and live on the eastern coast around Hualien and in the central, mountainous region of Nantou. The Truku, previously considered a subgroup of the Atayal, speak their own language. Their traditional costume is predominantly white in color and many Truku women have facial tattoos. The group's Macu ritual is performed by priests in private before other Truku members join in the celebration.

Tsou

The Tsou, who number about 6,000 and originated from the Jade Mountain 玉山 area, are divided into northern and southern subgroups on the basis of geographic distribution, language, and customs. The Tsou have a very strong tribal organization, in which men's meeting houses and farming, fishing, and hunting rituals play key roles in passing on education and beliefs. Special cultural features include the Mavasvi war ceremony held after the defeat of an enemy; the Homeyaya harvest ceremony; skill in preparing animal hides; a taboo against hunting or eating bears; and military courage. The southern Tsou have farming rituals and a shell ceremony (derived from the belief that ancestral spirits reside in shell beads, which are taken out by priests and held by each person during the ceremony). During the period of Japanese rule, however, immigration into southern Tsou areas by large numbers of Bunun people made them a minority, greatly influencing the transmission of their traditional culture to the younger generation.

Yami

The Yami live on Orchid Island 蘭嶼 off Taiwan's east coast and number around 2,700. They have an oceanic island culture very different from those of indigenous groups living on Taiwan proper. For example, they do not make alcohol or practice headhunting; taro is their staple crop; and their culture is centered on flying fish, which migrate annually through the waters off eastern Taiwan. Distinctive features of traditional Yami culture include ancestor worship, ceremonies to summon the flying fish, richly carved fishing boats, belief in evil spirits, and a hair-swinging dance. The Yami live in unique houses of stone and wood built in manmade depressions in the ground. They have a genetic and cultural relationship with the inhabitants of the Batan Islands of the Philippines.

Han People

Longing for better lives and seeking shelter from upheavals during the transition from the Ming dynasty to the Ching dynasty, the ancestors of Taiwan's Han people started to migrate from China's southeastern provinces to Taiwan in the 17th century. The majority of these early immigrants were composed of the Holo (also known as the Southern Fujianese or the Minnanese) from Zhangzhou 漳州 and Quanzhou 泉州 in southern Fujian, and the Hakka (literally "guest people") from Huizhou 惠州, Chaozhou 潮州 and Jiayingzhou 嘉應州 in eastern Guangdong Province.

Whether arriving earlier or later, in the north or in the south, these early immigrants chose to settle in locations they found to be similar to their hometowns in China. By choosing such places, these early immigrants adapted easily and established communities with others from their hometowns. For a period of time, Quanzhou immigrant communities were mostly found in the coastal region, Zhangzhou immigrants tended to gather on the inland plains, and the Hakka settled in hilly areas. Clashes between these groups over land, water, and cultural differences led to the relocation of some communities to other areas.

Cooperation among different ethnic groups was necessary, however, in the early days of the pioneering era. Research shows that despite conflicts, Hakka and Holo worked together to develop land, build irrigation systems, maintain social order, and construct temples dedicated to the same deities. Ethnic assimilation also occurred as time passed. Some Hakka who stayed at places where the Holo predominated were gradually assimilated by the Holo. Likewise, some Holo were assimilated by the Hakka, although this number was much smaller. The Holo and the Hakka together now constitute about 85 percent of Taiwan's population, the former outnumbering the latter by a 4:1 ratio. Today, large concentrations of Hakka are found in Taoyuan 桃園, Hsinchu 新竹, and Miaoli 苗栗 in northern Taiwan, and Kaohsiung and Pingtung 屏東 in southern Taiwan.

The Holo

The Holo are known for their traditional temples and houses. A residence usually features red brick walls and a red tile roof. Its layout might vary depending on a family's wealth, and take the form of a simple three-room house laid out horizontally 一條龍 or a more complex four-section compound 四合院. The most common form is a three-section compound 三合院. Looking like "ㄇ," the three-section compound is composed of a main living section and two wings extending from both ends of the main section. The courtyard is used for drying out crops. Wealthy Holo built beautifully decorated mansions, with the roof ridge curling upward and forked like a swallow's tail. Architectural styles of those immigrants from Zhangzhou and Quanzhou can be best demonstrated by the Chaotian Temple 朝天宮 in Beigang 北港 and the Lungshan Temple 龍山寺 in Wanhua 萬華, respectively.

Nanguan 南管 is a musical genre that originated in Quanzhou. It is believed to preserve many elements of the classical Chinese music that was brought to southern China in the fourth and fifth centuries. The typical nanguan ensemble includes one two-string violin, one three-string violin, one pipa (a guitar-like instrument), one vertical bamboo flute, and one clapper, which together produce a delicate, steady, and soothing sound.

The Hakka

The Hakka have a long history of frequent migration. They are seen to be imbued with the characteristics of perseverance, diligence, and frugality and are known for the simplicity of their homes, built with black brick or white plaster walls and black tile roofs. Some Hakka houses in Taiwan, however, are built with red bricks and red tiles, showing the influence of the Holo. The type of house that best exemplifies the Hakka's community spirit is called weilongwu 圍龍屋. Big compounds designed to accommodate the entire family and provide for self-defense, the weilongwu is based on the traditional Chinese four-section compound, with semicircular sections added to the main section. Examples of this style of house can be seen in Dongshih Township 東勢鎮 in Taichung County 臺中縣 and Neipu Township 內埔鄉 in Pingtung County 屏東縣.

Distinctive Hakka traditions include the worship of the Three Mountain Kings 三山國王 and yimin 義民 (ancestors who sacrificed their lives to protect their hometowns), the tea-farming opera, and folk songs (see Chapter 19: Culture for details). The oilpaper umbrella from Meinong 美濃 in Kaohsiung County is a famous Hakka handicraft.

Immigrants Arriving after 1949

About three hundred years passed by before Taiwan saw Han moving to the island again in large numbers. This immigration resulted from the Nationalist government's relocation to Taiwan in 1949, which brought about 1.2 million people from China, the majority of whom were in the military, the civil service, and education. Unlike earlier immigrants, these people came from every province of China, and included not only Han Chinese but also minority peoples from Mongolia, Tibet, and southwestern China. These immigrants brought to Taiwan their own customs and traditions, which are as distinctive and rich as those of the Holo, Hakka, and indigenous peoples.

The cultural influence of these immigrants on Taiwan can be seen in art and literature, in forms such as Beijing opera and the literary works of the so-called residential military community 眷村 (see Chapter 19: Culture for details). These immigrants also brought with them a diverse food culture. All major Chinese regional cuisines can be found in Taiwan. Another important cultural influence was the beginning of the widespread use of Mandarin (see Languages section below).

New Immigrants

A growing number of marriages between Taiwan's citizens and foreign nationals has made for an increasingly pluralistic society, as shown by this smiling mother and her child.

Starting in the late 1990s, a dramatic increase in marriages between Taiwanese and foreign nationals has brought more immigrants to Taiwan. Despite having come from a number of nations, including China, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Thailand, these people, the majority of them women, are generally viewed as a single group. Of the 365,000 spouses, about 234,000 are from China, and more than 60 percent of the approximately 100,000 spouses from southeastern Asia are from Vietnam. In 2005, these immigrants' marriages with citizens of Taiwan accounted for one in every five marriages, and children from these marriages made up 12.88 percent of all babies born. As many of them married into lower-income families, spouses from China and southeastern Asian countries generally have to face more challenges than other foreign nationals, who reside in Taiwan for work or education. To help these spouses better adapt to life in Taiwan, the government provides language and vocational training as well as guidance in family planning and raising children (for more information about welfare for new immigrants, see Chapter 15: Society).

Population Trends

The first census taken in Taiwan in 1905 showed a population of 3.12 million; 40 years later, this had almost doubled to 6.02 million. Although a baby boom after World War II led to a rapid increase in population, subsequent family planning and population policies helped to control population growth. The population growth rate in 1957 was 3.5 percent, from which it declined gradually to 1.8 percent in 1982. This plummeted in years afterward, and was 0.36 percent in 2005.

Rapid economic and political transformations over the past two decades have led to changes in social trends. Statistics show that from the 1970s onward, the average marrying age has continued to rise, while the percentage of women aged 15-39 who are married has been declining. More striking is the fact that the percentage of women aged 25-29 who are married dropped sharply from 65.1 percent in 1990 to 47.6 percent in 2000, and fell further to 41.5 percent in 2003. The total fertility rate (TFR, the average number of children born to a woman during her childbearing years) was 5 during the 1960s, fell to 2 in the 1980s, and dropped still more to 1.18 in 2004. Since 1984, the TFR has been lower than the replacement fertility rate (RFR, the total fertility rate at which women would bear only enough children to replace themselves and their partners), which is about 2.1 births per woman for most industrialized countries. These figures indicate that the phenomena of "late marriage, late pregnancy, and few children" 晚婚，遲育，少子 have become trends that will greatly affect Taiwan's population structure, which could have an impact on Taiwan's social and economic development.

Taiwan's population structure has also undergone great changes over the last few decades. The economically productive 15-64 year old age group grew, comprising 56.4 percent of the total population in 1949 but 71.56 percent in 2005. With medical advances having helped raise the average life expectancy over the years (see Chapter 16: Public Health), the proportion of those 65 years of age and older has been increasing, from 2.5 percent of the total population in 1949 to 9.74 percent in 2005. Judging from the current population structure (see Population by Age chart) and social trends mentioned above, Taiwan is, like Japan, France, and the United States, home to an aging population. A population forecast report by the Council for Economic Planning and Development 行政院經濟建設委員會 noted that the elderly would make up 18.8 percent of the population by 2025.

To counter the impacts of an aging population on national development, the government in 1992 began to promote a new population policy of "two (children) are just right" 兩個恰恰好 to encourage a moderate increase in the birth rate. In 2005, the Department of Health 行政院衛生署 began to call on couples to "give their child a companion" 給孩子一個伴. The new population policy also aims to further elevate the quality of life through education and preventative health care, promote the welfare of the senior population, improve the currently imbalanced population distribution between cities and rural regions through regional and national development plans, relax restrictions on professional and investment immigration, and increase assistance and guidance to foreign spouses.

Immigration and Emigration

Although Taiwan has a strict immigration policy due to its high population density, the number of foreign citizens (not counting people from China) living in Taiwan jumped from 30,000 to 430,000 between 1991 and 2005. This has been due mainly to the introduction of foreign guest workers in the early 1990s as well as the increase of marriages between citizens of Taiwan and foreign nationals. In terms of occupation, foreign guest workers in 2004 accounted for 68 percent of the total foreign population in Taiwan, having declined from a peak of over 80 percent between 1996 and 1999. Teachers and businesspeople are the two next-largest groups after foreign workers, while homemakers and foreign students made up 18 percent and 2 percent of the total foreign population, respectively.

Taiwan provides guidance to its emigrants for their safe settlement and successful establishment in other countries. Group emigration is facilitated through international investment and technical cooperation programs. Statistics for the past 15 years show that the United States is the top choice for Taiwan's émigrés, followed by Canada, New Zealand, and Australia. South Africa, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Singapore are also popular destinations.

Geographic Distribution

Taiwan's population remains highly urbanized and migration to the north is still a trend, but growth of the number of city dwellers as well as of those moving north has slowed. In 2005, the five main urban areas of Taipei-Keelung 臺北—基隆, Taoyuan-Jhongli 桃園—中壢, Taichung-Changhua 臺中—彰化, Tainan 臺南, and Kaohsiung were home to 64.71 percent of Taiwan's population. Kaohsiung City (154 sq. km) was the most densely populated area in 2005 with 9,835 persons per sq. km, Taipei City (272 sq. km) was next with 9,626 persons per sq. km, and Taichung City (163 sq. km) was third with 6,320 persons per sq. km.

Languages

The languages and dialects spoken in Taiwan have their origins in the Austronesian and Han (Chinese) language families. Austronesian languages are spoken by indigenous peoples, but are slowly disappearing because of cultural assimilation. Common Han languages used in Taiwan include Mandarin, Holo Taiwanese, and Hakka. In 1949, when the Nationalist government moved to Taiwan, Mandarin became the official language and was promoted through the educational system. Nevertheless, following Taiwan's democratization in the late 1980s, social pluralization was accompanied by a growing emphasis on local languages. Public and private efforts have been devoted to teaching students their mother tongues and preserve the languages and dialects of smaller ethnic groups.

Mandarin

Mandarin is currently the common language of Taiwan's people for everyday communication. In Taiwan, Mandarin is called guoyu 國語, meaning "national language." The origin of guoyu can be traced back to the late Ching dynasty, as the government then had prepared to make the dialect spoken around Beijing (the capital of the Ching empire) the national language. After the Republic of China was established, the Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation 讀音統一會, convened by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in 1913, began to formulate a standard phonetic system based on the phonology of the Beijing dialect. This phonetic system was composed of a set of phonetic symbols that, after two decades and many revisions, eventually developed into the Mandarin Phonetic Symbols (MPS) 注音符號. Consisting of 37 phonetic symbols and four tone marks, the MPS system is used in Taiwan for teaching pronunciation.

In 1928, the MOE promulgated a system of romanization for Mandarin called Gwoyeu Romatzyh (also known as National Phonetic Symbols II 國音字母第二式). This was never widely used, however, because of its complexity and the dominance of the Wade-Giles romanization system that predated it. In 1984, the MOE adopted a modified form of Gwoyeu Romatzyh, in which tone spellings were replaced by tone marks. But this did not change the preference for Wade-Giles and the occasional use of other romanization systems.

In 1996, the Educational Reform Council 教育改革委員會, led by Dr. Lee Yuan-tseh 李遠哲, recommended that the government adopt the Tongyong Pinyin 通用拼音 system, devised chiefly by Dr. B.C. Yu 余伯泉 of the Academia Sinica 中央研究院. In August 2002, this system was officially adopted for names, addresses, and other terminology, and efforts are now being made to promote its use throughout Taiwan. (For a comparison of the various romanization systems, see Appendix III.)

Taiwan has many resources for foreigners seeking to learn Mandarin. Mandarin programs are provided mainly by institutions affiliated with universities and by private institutes. Currently, there are 22 Mandarin learning institutes, with the Center for Chinese Language and Cultural Studies (originally the Mandarin Training Center) 國語教學中心 established by National Taiwan Normal University 國立臺灣師範大學 in 1956 being the earliest one. Well-known private Mandarin learning centers include the language center of the Mandarin Daily News 國語日報 and the Taipei Language Institute 中華語文研習所. As of December 2005, more than 30,000 foreigners had studied Mandarin in Taiwan. The Committee on the International Education of Taiwan Languages 國家對外華語文政策委員會工作小組 began operation in January 2005 to guide and coordinate cross-departmental actions to help promote the teaching and learning of Mandarin worldwide. The committee is also responsible for developing and promoting Holo Taiwanese, Hakka, and aboriginal language education for foreigners. Details on the Mandarin programs are available on an English-language website set up by the MOE, which can be found at http://english.education.edu.tw.

Holo Taiwanese

Holo Taiwanese is spoken by around 70 percent of the people in Taiwan. For many people, Mandarin is the language used in the workplace, and Holo Taiwanese is the one used within the family and among close friends.

Holo Taiwanese is derived from the tongue spoken in southern Fujian Province. With a seven-tone phonetic system, it has retained many elements of the classical Han languages as well as a number of non-Han language elements. Having never developed a well-established formal writing system, Holo Taiwanese is traditionally written in Han characters. But a script constructed exclusively of Han characters faces a number of difficulties, because some words changed so much over time that their corresponding characters can no longer be traced back or they do not have a written form. Another reason is that some Holo Taiwanese words are derived from non-Han languages that had no written form, or had no Han character form.

The absence of a mature writing system has forced people to use a multitude of ways to express sounds that have no corresponding written characters. Synonymous Han characters, homonyms, and romanized spellings are often used, and new characters are sometimes created, though none of these provides a perfect solution. Meanwhile, a mixed script of Han characters and romanization 漢羅 is gaining in popularity.

Studies are underway to develop a comprehensive Holo Taiwanese script. A research project commissioned by the MOE has produced a work of two volumes entitled Holo Taiwanese Vocabulary 閩南語字彙 to facilitate writing in Holo Taiwanese. In the two books, common vocabulary and expressions of Holo Taiwanese are represented by Chinese characters, and their pronunciation marked by using the Holo Taiwanese Phonetic System 臺灣閩南語音標系統 promulgated by the MOE in 1998.

Hakka

The Hakka language in Taiwan developed six divisions, among which the Sihsian 四縣 and Hailu 海陸 dialects are the most widely spoken. While the Sihsian dialect is prevalent in Hakka communities in Miaoli, Pingtung, and Kaohsiung, the Hailu dialect is most commonly used by the Hakka population in Hsinchu.

Although the Hakka language is still used within Hakka communities, proficiency in that language has been decreasing among young people. According to a 2004 research project commissioned by the Council for Hakka Affairs (CHA), 75.5 percent of ethnic Hakka over 13 years of age thought that they could speak the language fluently. Among those 13 to 29, however, the rate was only 51.6 percent, and for those 13 and under, just 13.8 percent. To promote the Hakka language, the CHA has been drawing up and carrying out various plans, such as creating a database for basic Hakka language materials, publishing dictionaries that cover the various Hakka dialects, and giving funds to schools to cultivate a Hakka learning environment on campus. The CHA administered the first language proficiency tests for speakers of five Hakka dialects in November 2005. The second test was held in March 2006.

The CHA also sponsors research on Hakka language and culture, especially through Hakka programs of study recently established at National Central University 國立中央大學, National Chiao Tung University 國立交通大學, National United University 國立聯合大學, and National Kaohsiung Normal University 國立高雄師範大學.

Indigenous Languages

Taiwan's indigenous languages, classified as "Formosan," belong to the same Proto-Austronesian language family as Malaysian and Hawaiian. The use of Formosan languages varies with geography. On Orchid Island, for example, Yami is still widely spoken. Overall, native speakers of indigenous languages are dwindling in number, however, as new generations growing up in cities are usually not as fluent in their ancestral languages as they are in Mandarin or Holo Taiwanese. To help preserve indigenous culture, the government has included the study of indigenous languages in Taiwan's compulsory education system. In 2005, more than 40,000 elementary and junior high school students took indigenous language courses, and 40 languages and dialects were taught. Since the Dutch colonial period, people have tried to romanize indigenous languages. For example, Christian missionaries introduced a romanization system for the language of the Siraya 西拉雅族, a pingpu group. Today, a collection of surviving receipts for borrowed money written in this language is called the Singang Manuscripts 新港文書. In 2005, the Council of Indigenous Peoples and the MOE jointly promulgated the romanization-based Writing Systems for Indigenous Languages 原住民語言書寫系統 for 13 indigenous languages and dialects. Curriculum on indigenous studies has also been gradually established on university campuses. For example, National Dong Hwa University 國立東華大學 established the College of Indigenous Studies in 2001.

Language Education

Taiwan's society is a rich mixture of diverse cultures, and awareness of the importance of preserving the variety of languages and dialects spoken in Taiwan is growing. This has led the government to promote education of local languages and culture 鄉土教育, which are primarily those of the Holo, the Hakka, and indigenous peoples. Starting from 2001, primary school students throughout Taiwan are required to take one native language course. For junior high school students, such language courses remain elective. The government supports such courses with funding at various levels.

For years, students in Taiwan's junior and senior high schools have been required to study English as a foreign language. In 2001, English was added to the curriculum of fifth- and sixth-year primary school students, and to the third- and fourth-year primary school curriculum in 2005. In 1999, senior high schools began to offer foreign language elective courses, including Japanese, French, German, and Spanish. Of these, Japanese was the most popular, with 20,000 students signing up in the first semester of 2005. Under Taiwan's new multi-track admission policy (see Chapter 18: Education), students attending these classes will have an advantage in gaining admission to the language departments of universities.

After leaving school, Taiwan's people also have access to language learning through classes offered by private language schools or the extension centers of public educational institutes. While the most popular foreign languages remain English and Japanese, interest in major European languages has increased. Many young people have taken up Korean, mainly because of the recent influx of items of South Korean popular culture to Taiwan. Increasing contact with people from Southeast Asia has also created demand for learning southeastern Asian languages such as Vietnamese, Thai, and Indonesian.

The government took action in 2002 to create an English-friendly environment in Taiwan as part of efforts to come into line with global trends and attract more foreign visitors to Taiwan. A plan to establish a bilingual living environment was incorporated into the Challenge 2008 National Development Plan 挑戰二○○八：國家發展重點計畫. In 2003, the Research, Development, and Evaluation Commission under the Executive Yuan 行政院研究發展考核委員會 compiled an English translation glossary containing the names of government agencies, job titles, and signs posted in public places. Both central and local government agencies now boast a bilingual environment that is helpful to foreign visitors. A Chinese-English signage system is also in place for roadways, public places, and tourist sites. Bilingual websites have been created, English news programs produced, and laws and regulations translated into English. Incentives are being provided to academic institutions and the private sector to establish a more extensive bilingual environment.

To promote lifelong learning and further encourage the study of English, the MOE commissioned the Language Training and Testing Center (LTTC) 財團法人語言訓練測驗中心 to develop the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) 全民英語能力分級檢定測驗 for English learners at all levels of proficiency. The GEPT is administered on five levels: Elementary, Intermediate, High Intermediate, Advanced, and Superior, and is composed of listening, reading, writing, and speaking sections. An examinee who passes the two-stage exams is awarded a certificate of achievement. The GEPT was launched in 2000, with the intermediate-level test being the first provided.

Related Websites
Council of Indigenous Peoples：	http://www.apc.gov.tw
Taiwan Aboriginal Culture Park：	http://www.tacp.gov.tw/ENGLISH/HOME.htm
Council for Hakka Affairs：	http://www.hakka.gov.tw
Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs   Commission：	http://www.mtac.gov.tw
Ministry of the Interior：	http://www.moi.gov.tw
Ministry of Education：	http://www.moe.gov.tw
Research, Development, and Evaluation   Commission：	http://www.rdec.gov.tw
Programs for Learning Mandarin：	http://english.education.edu.tw
National Taiwan Museum：	http://www.ntm.gov.tw/eng

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